Geosphere
The solid Earth — including the crust, mantle and core — provides the physical foundation of the planet.
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FUTUREVERSE SPACE CENTER
Earth Science
Explore the living planet beneath your feet — from Earth's deep interior and moving tectonic plates to oceans, atmosphere, climate, water, ecosystems and the forces that continuously reshape our world.
01 — THE PLANET
Earth as a System
Earth is not a collection of isolated parts. Its land, oceans, atmosphere, ice and living organisms constantly interact with one another.
Hydrosphere
Earth's water exists in oceans, rivers, lakes, groundwater, glaciers, ice sheets and the atmosphere.
Atmosphere
The atmosphere surrounds Earth and participates in weather, climate, energy transport and the water cycle.
Biosphere
Life interacts with the atmosphere, oceans and land through complex biological and chemical cycles.
EARTH SYSTEM SCIENCE
One planet. Many connected systems.
Scientists study Earth by observing how different systems exchange matter and energy. NASA Earth science research examines these connections across land, ocean, atmosphere, ice and living systems.
02 — BENEATH THE SURFACE
Inside the Earth
The planet's surface is only a very thin outer layer compared with the enormous structure beneath it.
Inner Core
Outer Core
Mantle
Crust
Crust
The crust is Earth's thin outer rocky layer. Oceanic crust is generally thinner than continental crust.
Mantle
Beneath the crust lies the mantle, a thick region of hot rock whose long-term movement is closely related to the dynamics of tectonic plates.
Outer Core
The outer core is a deep layer composed largely of iron and nickel in a liquid state. Its motion contributes to Earth's magnetic field.
Inner Core
At the center of Earth is the inner core, a solid region surrounded by the liquid outer core.
How do we know what is inside Earth?
Scientists use seismic waves from earthquakes, together with gravity, magnetic, heat-flow and laboratory observations, to investigate Earth's interior.
03 — A MOVING PLANET
Plate Tectonics
Earth's outer rocky shell is divided into large tectonic plates that move slowly over geological time.
01
Divergent Boundaries
Plates move apart. In many oceanic settings, new crust forms as material rises and solidifies.
02
Convergent Boundaries
Plates move toward one another. Their interactions can produce mountains, earthquakes, volcanoes and deep ocean trenches.
03
Transform Boundaries
Plates slide horizontally past one another. Friction along faults can produce earthquakes.
GEOLOGICAL MOTION
Continents are not stationary.
Tectonic plates move at rates commonly measured in centimeters per year — extremely slowly on a human timescale, but powerful over millions of years.
04 — THE SURFACE OF EARTH
Mountains, Volcanoes & Earthquakes
Earth's surface is continuously reshaped by tectonic forces, erosion, weathering, volcanism and the movement of water and ice.
Mountains
Mountain ranges can form when tectonic plates collide and compress the crust. Other mountains form through volcanic activity or faulting.
Volcanoes
Volcanoes are surface expressions of magmatic activity. Eruptions can build new land and release gases, ash and lava.
Earthquakes
Earthquakes occur when stored geological energy is suddenly released, producing seismic waves that travel through Earth.
Erosion
Wind, water and ice can transport sediment and gradually reshape landscapes over long periods of time.
05 — THE AIR AROUND EARTH
Earth's Atmosphere
A thin envelope of gases surrounds our planet. It influences weather, climate, radiation, chemistry and life.
Troposphere
The lowest major atmospheric layer, where most weather occurs and where most atmospheric water vapor is found.
Stratosphere
A higher atmospheric layer containing the ozone layer, which absorbs much of the Sun's harmful ultraviolet radiation.
Mesosphere
A cold upper atmospheric region where many incoming meteoroids encounter atmospheric drag.
Thermosphere
A very high atmospheric region strongly influenced by solar radiation and energetic particles.
Exosphere
The extremely thin outer region of Earth's atmosphere that gradually transitions toward space.
06 — ATMOSPHERIC DYNAMICS
Weather & Storms
Weather describes atmospheric conditions over relatively short periods, from local changes to large-scale storms.
Clouds
Clouds form when atmospheric water vapor condenses into tiny liquid droplets or ice particles.
Precipitation
Rain, snow, sleet and hail return water from the atmosphere to Earth's surface.
Wind
Differences in atmospheric pressure help drive the movement of air from one region to another.
Severe Storms
Earth experiences powerful atmospheric systems including thunderstorms, tropical cyclones and other extreme weather events.
07 — THE PLANET'S WATER
The Water Cycle
Earth's water continuously moves between the surface, underground reservoirs and atmosphere.
01
Evaporation
Solar energy causes liquid water to become water vapor.
02
Condensation
Cooling water vapor can condense into tiny droplets or ice particles.
03
Precipitation
Water returns to Earth's surface as rain, snow and other forms of precipitation.
04
Collection
Water gathers in oceans, rivers, lakes, soil, groundwater and ice.
A continuous planetary cycle
NASA describes the hydrologic cycle as a continuous exchange of moisture among oceans, atmosphere and land, powered largely by energy from the Sun.
08 — THE BLUE PLANET
Earth's Oceans
Oceans cover more than 70% of Earth's surface and are fundamental to the planet's climate, weather, chemistry and ecosystems.
GLOBAL OCEAN
Earth's largest connected environment
The ocean stores and transports enormous amounts of heat. Ocean circulation interacts with the atmosphere and influences weather and climate across the planet.
70%+
Surface Coverage
~97%
Earth's Water in Oceans
09 — LONG-TERM CHANGE
Climate & Earth's Energy
Climate describes long-term patterns of weather. Earth's climate system is influenced by the atmosphere, oceans, land, ice and incoming solar energy.
Solar Energy
The Sun provides the dominant external energy input that drives Earth's climate system and water cycle.
Heat Transport
The atmosphere and oceans move heat around the planet, helping redistribute energy between different regions.
Greenhouse Effect
Certain atmospheric gases absorb and re-emit infrared radiation, influencing Earth's surface temperature.
Ice & Snow
Glaciers, ice sheets and sea ice interact with the atmosphere and oceans and are important components of the Earth system.
10 — LIFE ON EARTH
Ecosystems & the Biosphere
Life exists across an extraordinary range of environments, from oceans and forests to deserts, polar regions and microscopic habitats.
Forests
Forest ecosystems connect vegetation, soil, atmosphere, water and countless organisms.
Marine Ecosystems
Oceans support ecosystems ranging from sunlit surface waters to deep and extreme environments.
Carbon Cycle
Carbon continuously moves among the atmosphere, oceans, rocks, soils and living organisms.
Life & Environment
Organisms interact with physical and chemical conditions, creating complex ecosystems across the planet.
11 — A PLANETARY VIEW
Earth From Space
Looking at Earth from orbit changes the scale of the story. Satellites allow scientists to observe the planet as one connected system.
Satellites
Earth-observing satellites collect data about land, oceans, atmosphere, ice, vegetation and environmental change.
Global View
Space-based observations provide a planetary perspective that cannot be obtained from a single location on Earth.
Long-Term Data
Repeated observations help scientists detect patterns and changes across seasons, years and decades.
KEEP EXPLORING
Earth is only one world in a much larger system.
Continue your journey through astronomy, the Solar System and humanity's exploration of space.